Section 2: EAL/ESL Literacy Learners

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  • EAL/ESL Literacy is the intersection of language learning and literacy skill development.
  • Literacy skills exist on a continuum and include all the skills and strategies needed to be able to use text to meet your needs and participate in settings in education, the workforce, and the community.
  • EAL/ESL literacy learners usually have 0-9 years of formal education before coming to Canada.
  • There are common myths and facts about EAL/ESL literacy learners.
  • There are common strengths and challenges of EAL/ESL literacy learners.
  • Some EAL/ESL literacy learners may face multiple layers of disadvantage beyond lower literacy skills based on their gender, race, culture, faith, gender expression, and sexuality.
  • EAL/ESL literacy learners benefit from trauma-informed practice.
  • Some EAL/ESL literacy learners may be neurodivergent and/or have learning disabilities.
  • EAL/ESL literacy learners benefit from Universal Design for Learning.
EAL/ESL Literacy Learners

2.1 Definitions of EAL/ESL literacy

EAL/ESL literacy is the intersection of language learning and literacy skill development. EAL/ESL literacy learners do not have advanced literacy skills in their own or any other language. They have the simultaneous challenge of learning English while they are developing literacy skills for the first time. What is more, they are doing this in a language that they are just learning to speak.

Literacy can be defined as the set of skills and strategies needed to be able to use text to fully participate in education, the workplace, and community settings. Literacy skills fall on a spectrum. There is no dichotomy between illiterate and literate; rather, there is a continuum of skills from the very foundational skills, such as learning to hold a pencil or write your name, to advanced comprehension skills, such as reading a story or a letter from the government.

EAL/ESL literacy learners:

  • Are simultaneously learning English and developing literacy for the first time
  • Usually have 0-9 years of formal education before coming to Canada
  • Often have interrupted formal education
  • May have had an education without many resources or qualified teachers
  • May have experienced persecution, conflict, famine, or war
  • Come from a wide range of countries and speak a wide range of first languages
  • May speak a first language that does not have a written form
  • May be any gender, age, faith, or culture

 

2.2 Myths and facts about EAL/ESL literacy learners

Myths and Facts about EAL/ESL Literacy Learners
Myth Fact
“Anyone who speaks a first language that uses a non-Roman alphabet, e.g. Chinese, Arabic, or Russian, is a literacy learner because they need to learn the English alphabet.” Learners who have advanced literacy skills in a language using a non-Roman alphabet are able to transfer those skills to their development of English. They do not usually require explicit literacy support.
“Literacy learners have no ability to read or write. Anyone who can read or write a little is not a literacy learner.” Literacy is a spectrum, and literacy learners can be anywhere on that spectrum. Learners with some literacy skills, typically those who have come up through lower levels of literacy classes or who have 6-9 years of previous formal education, still benefit from explicit literacy instruction.
“Literacy learners are lazy. They often miss school and don’t care about being punctual.” Literacy learners often face considerable barriers to attending school, such as poverty, many appointments, and increased settlement challenges. Most literacy learners are hard working and dedicated to learning.
“Literacy is difficult to teach.” Teaching literacy presents its challenges, just as any teaching does, but many literacy instructors love teaching literacy. The learners are often eager to learn and have lots to teach in return. At events for EAL/ESL literacy instructors, teaching EAL/ESL literacy is often spoken of as a “well-kept secret.”
“Literacy learners learn as quickly as other learners.” Literacy learners often need more time to progress through benchmarks. They may (or may not) learn as quickly as non-literacy learners, but they have a much larger learning task: they are learning a language at the same time as they learn to read and write. They often also have fewer formal learning strategies and have digital literacy and numeracy needs. This takes time.
“Literacy learners learn in the same way as non-literacy learners.” Literacy learners usually learn best in hands-on, active, oral-first environments with lots of movement, recycling, and spiralling of learning

2.3 Common strengths and challenges of EAL/ESL literacy learners

EAL/ESL Literacy Learners
Common Strengths Common Challenges
  • Usually hands-on and practical
  • Highly motivated
  • Resilient
  • Good survival skills
  • Often higher CLB in listening and speaking
  • Can use oral language to support their literacy development
  • Community-minded and often willing to support each other
  • Often speak several languages
  • Fewer formal learning strategies
  • Have challenges with transferring learning from one context to another
  • Often have difficulties with formatted text
  • Often face considerable settlement challenges in health care, housing, and employment
  • Often have numeracy needs
  • Often have lower digital literacy skills
  • Have a different set of “general knowledge” to draw on
  • Often require more time to learn language skills as they are also developing literacy skills

2.4 EAL/ESL literacy and intersectionality

Canada is a highly literate nation, and there is a cost to low literacy skills. These challenges can include:

  • Fewer job choices
  • Significant economic impacts
  • Health impacts
  • Social impacts
  • Reduced ability to advocate for oneself or family
  • Reduced ability to support children in their education
  • Higher settlement needs
In addition to having lower literacy skills, many EAL/ESL literacy learners experience intersectionality, or the intersection of categorizations such as race, class, gender, gender expression, and sexuality. Intersectionality describes overlapping systems of discrimination or disadvantage. Women make up greater than 50% of EAL/ESL literacy learners in Canada, and according to the United Nations, two-thirds of the adults in the world with low literacy are women. Women in Canada face greater economic, social, and political challenges and are at a greater risk of being the victims of gender-based violence. EAL/ESL literacy learners who are women generally face even greater challenges than women with higher literacy skills and usually have fewer resources. EAL/ESL literacy learners are often racialized, belong to minority culture groups in Canada, and often belong to minority faiths. They can face the considerable challenges of both individual and institutional racism and usually have fewer resources for advocating for themselves. Some EAL/ESL literacy learners are also members of the 2SLGBTQIA+ community. Many of these learners come from countries where homosexuality is illegal, and they may have faced very serious consequences, including imprisonment, violence, or death, for their gender expression or sexuality. These learners may continue to face the challenges of discrimination from their communities as well as the discrimination within Canada.

2.5 EAL/ESL literacy and learning disabilities and neurodivergence

EAL/ESL literacy learners may also have learning disabilities and/or neurodivergence, which can be difficult to formally diagnose and support. For these learners, learning disabilities and/or neurodivergence are separate from and in addition to their literacy needs. Learning disabilities include:

  • Dyslexia: a language processing difficulty that impacts reading, writing, and spelling
  • Dysgraphia: a difficulty that impacts handwriting, spelling, and the ability to put thoughts into writing
  • Dyscalculia: a difficulty that impacts ability with math skills and concepts
  • Dyspraxia: a fine motor skills difficulty that impacts coordination and manual dexterity
  • Audio Processing Disorder: a difficulty with interpreting auditory information
  • Visual Processing Disorder: a difficulty with interpreting visual information
For more information about learning disabilities, see Learning Disabilities Association of Canada. It is usually difficult to have learning disabilities diagnosed in EAL/ESL literacy learners because the diagnostic tools are not normed on language and literacy learners and are not sensitive enough to distinguish between a lack of language or literacy skills and a learning disability. Many of the supports that are used for EAL/ESL literacy are also good for supporting learning disabilities, including:

  • Word banks, lists, or cards
  • Clear photographs to support reading
  • Sentence stems
  • Reading instructions aloud to learners and verbally checking for comprehension
  • Reading questions aloud to learners
  • Scribing answers for learners
Learners may also be neurodivergent. Neurodivergence is a difference in brain function and can include differences in perception of the environment, social preferences, ways of learning, and ways of communicating. Common forms of neurodivergence include:

  • ADHD (Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder)
  • Autism
  • Tourette Syndrome
It can also be difficult to get a formal diagnosis for any form of neurodivergence for adult EAL/ESL literacy learners. While it is possible to seek a diagnosis through a doctor, psychiatrist, or nurse practitioner, most diagnosis of neurodivergence as an adult in Canada is private (and can be expensive). Additionally, the diagnostic tools for neurodivergence are not normed on language and literacy learners; it can be difficult for a diagnostic tool to separate language and literacy challenges from other differences. If you suspect neurodivergence in a learner, try to find the way the learner works and learns best. Common supports for different forms of neurodivergence are similar to trauma-informed strategies and include:

  • Allowing flexibility in working with a partner or working alone
  • Allowing learners to choose who they best work with
  • Allowing learners to choose where to sit
  • Allowing learners the opportunity to move around frequently
  • Allowing learners ways to regulate themselves, such as taking a short walk, getting some water, or shifting activities
 

2.6 Trauma-informed practice

Trauma-informed practice (also often called trauma-aware practice) is a series of strategies for teaching and learning that acknowledge that many learners have experienced trauma. Trauma-informed practice seeks to create safer learning environments for all. These strategies are good practices for any classroom but can be particularly important when teaching EAL/ESL literacy learners, as they are generally at a higher risk for having experienced trauma.

EAL/ESL literacy learners may have experienced:

  • Violence
  • Sexual violence
  • Environmental disasters
  • War or other conflict
  • Discrimination
  • Persecution
  • Imprisonment or confinement
  • Torture
  • Poverty
  • Loss of home or community
  • Loss of loved ones, friends, or neighbours
  • Missing loved ones, friends, or neighbours
  • Witnessing violence
  • Being forced to participate in violence
  • Abuse
  • Neglect

Trauma can have a lasting impact on the brain and on learning. Common impacts of trauma include:

  • Ongoing physical health issues
  • Headaches
  • Stomach aches
  • Depression
  • Anxiety
  • Rigid behaviour
  • Intrusive thoughts or memories
  • Flashbacks
  • Nightmares or insomnia
  • Exhaustion
  • Difficulty with memory
  • Difficulty with focus or concentration
  • Exaggerated startle responses

As an EAL/ESL instructor, your role is not to diagnose, treat, or heal trauma. There is significant difference between an EAL/ESL instructor and a counselor or psychologist. The goal of trauma-informed practice is not to heal trauma but to create a safer, more aware learning environment for all learners. It is not necessary to know if a learner has experienced trauma to choose trauma-aware practices, and it is not recommended to ask learners about their experiences.

Trauma-informed strategies include:

  • Avoid predictable triggers for trauma: Not all triggers for trauma are predictable, but there are some that are common to many learners, including authoritative questioning; the sound of boots, sirens, or alarms; images or discussions of war or violence; discussions of current events; and windowless rooms.
  • Build routine: Routines allow learners to predict what is going to come next, giving them a sense of control and safety.
  • Build community and connections: Trauma can be dehumanizing; community and meaningful connections with other people can affirm humanity and the best in other people. They can also help learners connect with people who can help them or with other resources.
  • Give choices: Allow learners choice whenever possible, including where to sit, whether to work with others, who to work with, and what topics to work on.
  • Respect a learner’s right to be silent: Never require learners to share their stories. Always allow learners to choose how and what to share.
  • Provide learners with advanced warning of change: Warn learners ahead of time if there is going to be a change, such as a substitute instructor, a fire drill, or a field trip.

 

2.7 Universal Design for Learning

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is the practice of designing learning to be accessible to all learners. UDL recognizes that accommodations for one learner or group of learners will benefit all learners. There may be supports in place for EAL/ESL literacy learners to support: Common accommodations when teaching EAL/ESL literacy learners include:

  1. Scaffolding or supports for learning
    • Aids such as guides for tracking or fingers for spacing
    • Word cards
    • Word banks
    • Lists
    • Personal information cards
    • Sentence stems and frames
    • Models to copy
    • Hearing instructions (instead of reading them)
    • Dictating writing (to an instructor or volunteer to scribe)


  2. Appropriate pace of instruction
    • Moving ahead with teaching when learners are ready for the next step
    • Recycling language, skills, and strategies
    • Spiralling learning over time


  3. Choice
    • Where they sit
    • Who they work with
    • Whether they work alone
    • What they learn about
    • What topics they write or speak about


  4. Classroom design
    • Windows
    • Freedom to choose where to sit
    • Tables with space to spread out
    • Resources such as picture dictionaries
    • Basic school supplies
    • Print-rich environment including word walls, alphabet, phonics, numbers, and basic expressions